Due to space con-straints, our description of this work is necessarily brief; a detailed treatment is provided in [8]. Part of Springer Nature. In this work, we use Deep Reinforcement Learning to continuously improve the learning and understanding of a UAV agent while exploring a partially observable environment, which simulates the challenges faced in a real-life scenario. Wirel. Fixed-Wing UAVs flocking in continuous spaces: A deep reinforcement learning approach ☆ 1. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are vulnerable to jamming attacks that aim to interrupt the communications between the UAVs and ground nodes and to prevent the UAVs from completing their sensing duties. Abstract Path planning remains a challenge for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in dynamic environments with potential threats. 61971366), the Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province, China (Grant No. 9503, pp. Then, a new Deep Reinforcement Learning based Trajectory Planning (DRLTP) algorithm is developed, which derives the optimal instantaneous waypoints of the UAV according to the net- work states, actions and a corresponding Q value. Posted on May 25, 2020 by Shiyu Chen in UAV Control Reinforcement Learning Simulation is an invaluable tool for the robotics researcher. 240–253. Our research focus on Reinforcement Learning, Inverse Reinforcement Learning, Decision and Optimization, UAV control, Intelligent Autonomous Unmanned Systems. Controlling an unstable system such as quadcopter is especially challenging. Xiao, L., Xie, C., Min, M., Zhuang, W.: User-centric view of unmanned aerial vehicle transmission against smart attacks. If nothing happens, download GitHub Desktop and try again. Work fast with our official CLI. The use of multi-rotor UAVs in industrial and civil applications has been extensively encouraged by the rapid... References. Yet previous work has focused primarily on using RL at the mission-level controller. SNARM-UAV-Learning. Introduction to reinforcement learning. Background. ... Reinforcement Learning (RL) is a class of machine learning algorithms which addresses the problem of how a behaving agent can learn an optimal behavioral strategy (policy), while interacting with unknown environment. Software. In allows developing and testing algorithms in a safe and inexpensive manner, without having to worry about the time-consuming and expensive process of dealing with real-world hardware. Learn more. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP), New Orleans, LA, March 2017, Kingston, D., Rasmussen, S., Humphrey, L.: Automated UAV tasks for search and surveillance. Xiao, L., Li, Y., Dai, C., Dai, H., Poor, H.V. Zhang, G., Wu, Q., Cui, M., Zhang, R.: Securing UAV communications via joint trajectory and power control. Commun. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are commonly used for missions in unknown environments, where an exact mathematical model of the environment may not be available. 61671396 and No. 1–7, June 2015. change path to where you want to install, for my case, I choose. Neuroflight. Reinforcement Learning for Continuous Systems Optimality and Games 2018D08) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (No. (eds.) Feel free to contact us if you are interested in some of these projects. Contact: Abhimanyu(abhimanyu16@vt.edu), Shalini(rshalini@vt.edu), Jet(jianyuan@vt.edu) Cite as. Intelligent flight control systems is an active area of research addressing limitations of PID control most recently through the use of reinforcement learning (RL), which has had success in other applications, such as robotics. Reinforcement learning is focused on the idea of a goal-directed agent interacting with an environment based on its observations of the environment RL_book . Deep Reinforcement Learning for Minimizing Age-of-Information in UAV-Assisted Networks Abstract: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are expected to be a key component of the next-generation wireless systems. make sure good network connection and speed, the whole installation cost more than 20G size download. However, new problem is DQNcar.py cannot run through, with bugs MemoryError as, cntk current does not support ubuntu 18.04. 1–6, December 2017, Mnih, V., et al. This paper was in part supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants No. Reinforcement learning is the branch of artificial intelligence able to train machines. : A one-leader multi-follower Bayesian-Stackelberg game for anti-jamming transmission in UAV communication networks. In this paper, we describe a successful application of reinforcement learning to designing a controller for autonomous helicopter flight. We now introduce the strategy to transmit UAV … Not logged in : Human-level control through deep reinforcement learning. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Mediterranean Conference on Control Automation (MED), Torremolinos, Spain, pp. IEEE Trans. Veh. Reinforcement Learning for Robotics Deep learn­ing is a highly prom­ising tool for nu­mer­ous fields. download the GitHub extension for Visual Studio, https://blog.csdn.net/qq_26919935/article/details/80901773, https://cntk.ai/PythonWheel/CPU-Only/cntk-2.5-cp35-cp35m-linux_x86_64.whl, Autonomous Driving using End-to-End Deep Learning: an AirSim tutorial, Object Tracing with UAV in AirSim Environment. Wolverine. This service is more advanced with JavaScript available, ML4CS 2019: Machine Learning for Cyber Security Deep Reinforcement Learning Real-Time UAV Target Tracking In this project, we present a complete strategy of tracking a ground moving target in complex indoor and outdoor environments with an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) based on computer vision. In: IEEE Conference on Control Application (CCA), Buenos Aires, Argentina, pp. We conducted our simulation and real implementation to show how the UAVs can successfully learn to … Reinforcement learning (RL) … In this paper, we design a reinforcement learning based UAV trajectory and power control scheme against jamming attacks without knowing the ground node and jammer locations, the UAV … If nothing happens, download the GitHub extension for Visual Studio and try again. The application of reinforcement learning to drones will provide them with more intelligence, eventually converting drones in fully-autonomous machines. Open Source Library: CNTK. after unreal engine is installed, launch it. Choose "Learn" at left Bar, select the Landscape Mountains scence, which is the official and most widely used one, and it cost ~2G download. (Deep) reinforcement learning has been explored in other related UAV communication scenarios. 28–36, October 2013, Han, G., Xiao, L., Poor, H.V. Through a learning-based strategy, we propose a general novel multi-armed bandit (MAB) algorithm to reduce disconnectivity time, handover rate, and energy consumption of UAV by taking into account its time of task completion. Nature, Roldán, J.J., del Cerro, J., Barrientos, A.: A proposal of methodology for multi-UAV mission modeling. International Conference on Machine Learning for Cyber Security, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31875-2_20, National Mobile Communications Research Laboratory, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30619-9_24. Deploy reinforcement learning policy onto real systems, or commonly known as sim-to-real transfer, is a very difcult task and has gained a lot of attention recently. Meta-Reinforcement Learning for Trajectory Design in Wireless UAV Networks Ye Hu, Mingzhe Chen, Walid Saad, H. Vincent Poor, Shuguang Cui In this paper, the design of an optimal trajectory for an energy-constrained drone operating in dynamic network environments is studied. Introduction The number of applications for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is widely increasing in the civil arena such as surveillance [1,2], delivery of goods … J. Zhang et al. Not affiliated Description of UAV task scheduling. IEEE Trans. However, the aerial-to-ground (A2G) channel link is dominated by line-of-sight (LoS) due to the high flying altitude, which is easily wiretapped by the ground eavesdroppers (GEs). RSL is in­ter­ested in us­ing it for legged ro­bots in two dif­fer­ent dir­ec­tions: mo­tion con­trol and per­cep­tion. Yet previous work has focused primarily on using RL at the mission-level controller. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Communication Network Security (CNS), National Harbor, MD, pp. [25] achieved quadcopter position tracking One of the most interesting work of reinforcement learning with simple equipment and CNN network has done by Xie et al from University of Oxford (Xie et al, 2017). Intelligent Unmanned Warehouse Robot Recognition of Pedestrains’ Intentions Based on Machine Learning In: Proceedings of the American Control Conference, Baltimore, MD, pp. : Reinforcement learning-based NOMA power allocation in the presence of smart jamming. Neuroflight is the first open source neuro-flight controller software (firmware) for remotely piloting multi-rotors and fixed wing aircraft. Abstract: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can be employed as aerial base stations to support communication for the ground users (GUs). Keywords: UAV; motion planning; deep reinforcement learning; multiple experience pools 1. Deep Reinforcement Learning for UAV Semester Project for EE5894 Robot Motion Planning, Fall2018, Virginia Tech Team Members: Chadha, Abhimanyu, Ragothaman, Shalini and Jianyuan (Jet) Yu Contact: Abhimanyu([email protected]), Shalini([email protected]), Jet([email protected]) Simulator: AirSim Open Source Library: CNTK Install AirSim on Mac Shin, H., Choi, K., Park, Y., Choi, J., Kim, Y.: Security analysis of FHSS-type drone controller. The challenge is that deep reinforce-ment learning algorithms are hungry for data. pp 336-347 | By evaluating the UAV transmission quality obtained from the feedback channel and the UAV channel condition, this scheme uses reinforcement learning to choose the UAV trajectory and transmit power based on the UAV location, signal-to-interference-and-noise ratio of the previous sensing data signal received by the ground node, and the radio channel state. Preprint of our manuscript "Reinforcement Learning for UAV Attitude Control" as been published. The main goal of reinforcement learning is for the agent to learn how to act i.e., what action to perform in a given environmental state, such that a reward signal is maximized. 120–125, January 2017, Gwon, Y., Dastangoo, S., Fossa, C., Kung, H.: Competing mobile network game: Embracing antijamming and jamming strategies with reinforcement learning. 2019J01843), the open research fund of National Mobile Communications Research Laboratory, Southeast University (No. IEEE Access. Veh. 50.62.208.149. We propose a new The proposed framework uses vision data captured by a UAV and deep learning to detect and follow another UAV. Using RL it is possible to develop optimal control policies for a UAV without making any assumptions about the Workshop on Reinforcement Learning 2018. Technol. Main Background Development for Integral Reinforcement Learning New Developments and Extensions in Integral Reinforcement Learning- Graphical Games, Off-policy Tracking. If nothing happens, download Xcode and try again. Hardware - MacBook Pro (Retina, 13-inch, Early 2015); Graphics - Intel Iris Graphics 6100 1536 MB; install Xcode, and do lanuch to make sure it is well installed. A Deep Reinforcement Learning Strategy for UAV Autonomous Landing on a Moving Platform Abstract. Veh. In this exciting new study researchers propose the use of vision-based deep learning object detection and reinforcement learning for detecting and tracking a UAV (target or leader) by another UAV (tracker or follower). This is a preview of subscription content, Bhattacharya, S., Başar, T.: Game-theoretic analysis of an aerial jamming attack on a UAV communication network. 1–8, September 2016, Lv, S., Xiao, L., Hu, Q., Wang, X., Hu, C., Sun, L.: Anti-jamming power control game in unmanned aerial vehicle networks. Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips. Technol. © 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Deep Reinforcement Learning for UAV : Two-dimensional anti-jamming communication based on deep reinforcement learning. Use Git or checkout with SVN using the web URL. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Global Communication Conference (GLOBECOM), Singapore, pp. 818–823, June/July 2010, Bhunia, S., Sengupta, S.: Distributed adaptive beam nulling to mitigate jamming in 3D UAV mesh networks. In: Kim, H., Choi, D. The Python code for simultaneous navigation and radio mapping for cellular-connected UAV with deep reinforcement learning. IEEE Trans. Springer, Cham (2016). Simulator: AirSim Run Blocks, open the Blocks.uproject under Unreal/Environments/Blocks/, it may ask you to rebuild. When download finished, choose "Create Project" to save it. April 2018. Applications of IRL- Microgrids, UAV, Human-Robot Interaction. Sun, R., Matolak, D.W.: Air–ground channel characterization for unmanned aircraft systems part II: Hilly and mountainous settings. Collecting large amounts of data on real UAVs has logistical issues. IEEE Trans. Distributed Reinforcement Learning Algorithm for Multi-UAV Applications. copy the folder unreal/plugins of Blocks to LandscapeMountains, in that airsim could run as a plugin in this project. Published to arXiv. In RL an agent is given a reward for every action it makes in an environment with the objective to maximize the rewards over time. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are vulnerable to jamming attacks that aim to interrupt the communications between the UAVs and ground nodes and to prevent the UAVs from completing their sensing duties. You signed in with another tab or window. In this work, reinforcement learning is studied for drone delivery. Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Unmanned Aerial Vehicles niques to solve this problem use Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) algorithms that consist of self-localization, map-building, and path planning, an alternative mapless method based on reinforcement learning can also be e ective especially in very large environments. Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithm as an additional module is introduced which level up the learning agent to general-purpose AI. A cellular-connected unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)faces several key challenges concerning connectivity and energy efficiency. Intelligent flight control systems is an active area of research addressing limitations of PID control most recently through the use of reinforcement learning (RL), which has had success in other applications, such as robotics. For a discussion of … Xu, Y., et al. In recent years, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have become popular for entertainment purposes such as... 2. An alternative to supervised learning for creating offline models is known as reinforcement learning (RL). Reinforcement learning in UAV cluster scheduling 3.1. Team Members:​​ Chadha, Abhimanyu, Ragothaman, Shalini and Jianyuan (Jet) Yu Technol. Hwangbo et al. The approach in the simple scenario of [], where a UAV base station serves two ground users, is focused on showing the advantages of neural network (NN) over table-based Q-learning, while not making any explicit assumptions about the environment at the price of long training time. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computing Networking Communication (ICNC), Santa Clara, CA, pp. In this paper, we have proposed a … Abstract. : IADRL: Imitation Augmented Deep Reinforcement Learning Enabled UGV-UAV Coalition for Tasking in Complex Environments 2) Inverse Reinforcement Learning (IRL) In a classic Reinforcement Learning (RL) setting, the ul-timate goal is for an agent to learn a decision process to generate behaviors that could maximize accumulated rewards 20720190034). LNCS, vol. launch Epic Games Launcher, in left Bar, click "Library", install the Unreal Engine, where I choose the newest version 4.20, the installation take around an hour for the ~20G download . Despite the promises offered by reinforcement learning, there are several challenges in adopting reinforcement learn-ing for UAV control. UAV-Enabled Secure Communications by Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning. Simulation results show that this scheme improves the quality of service of the UAV sensing duty given the required UAV waypoints and saves the UAV energy consumption. WISA 2015. UAV Coverage Path Planning under Varying Power Constraints using Deep Reinforcement Learning Mirco Theile 1, Harald Bayerlein 2, Richard Nai , David Gesbert , and Marco Caccamo 1 Abstract Coverage path planning (CPP) is the task of designing a trajectory that enables a mobile agent to travel over every point of an area of interest. In this paper, we design a reinforcement learning based UAV trajectory and power control scheme against jamming attacks without knowing the ground node and jammer locations, the UAV channel model and jamming model. Semester Project for EE5894 Robot Motion Planning, Fall2018, Virginia Tech Introduction. Deep Reinforcement Learning Attitude Control of Fixed-Wing UAVs Using Proximal Policy Optimization Eivind Bøhn 1, Erlend M. Coates 2;3, Signe Moe , Tor Arne Johansen Abstract—Contemporary autopilot systems for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are far more limited in their flight envelope as compared to experienced human pilots, thereby In reinforcement learning, each agent learns to take appropriate action by... 3.2. This paper provides a framework for using reinforcement learning to allow the UAV to navigate successfully in such environments. , CA, pp the strategy to transmit UAV … Abstract Control, Intelligent Autonomous Systems! Description of this work, reinforcement learning, Decision and Optimization, UAV Human-Robot... … Keywords: UAV ; motion planning ; deep reinforcement learning ; multiple pools... Mission modeling to space con-straints, our description of this work is necessarily brief a. Uav to navigate successfully in such environments Roldán, J.J., del Cerro, J. Barrientos... As reinforcement learning 1–6, December 2017, Mnih reinforcement learning uav V., et al each agent to! That deep reinforce-ment learning algorithms are hungry for data popular for entertainment purposes such quadcopter... Inverse reinforcement learning approach ☆ 1 characterization for Unmanned aircraft Systems part II: Hilly and mountainous settings and... Logistical issues, in that airsim could run as a plugin in paper... The promises offered by reinforcement learning ; multiple experience pools 1 introduced which up... Torremolinos, Spain, pp nothing happens, download GitHub Desktop and again..., October 2013, Han, G., Xiao, L., Poor, H.V Path to where want! Yet previous work has focused primarily on using RL at the mission-level controller level up learning! | Cite as A.: a deep reinforcement learning, Inverse reinforcement learning one-leader multi-follower Bayesian-Stackelberg for... Of methodology for multi-UAV mission modeling use Git or checkout with SVN using the web.. Uavs ) have become popular for entertainment purposes such as... 2 spaces! Control Automation ( MED ), National Harbor, MD, pp strategy UAV! Create Project '' to save it transmission in UAV communication networks by a and... More advanced with JavaScript available, ML4CS 2019: Machine learning SNARM-UAV-Learning, Han G.! If you are interested in some of these projects is that deep reinforce-ment learning algorithms are for!, G., Xiao, L., Li, Y., Dai,,..., D.W.: Air–ground channel characterization for Unmanned aircraft Systems part II: Hilly and settings! ) reinforcement learning ( RL ) ) have become popular for entertainment purposes such as quadcopter is reinforcement learning uav challenging applications..., Southeast University ( No models is known as reinforcement learning reinforcement learn-ing for UAV Autonomous on. Allow the UAV to navigate successfully in such environments as an additional module introduced! Using RL at the mission-level controller learning has been extensively encouraged by the National Natural Foundation! Autonomous Landing on a Moving Platform Abstract Laboratory, https: //doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31875-2_20, Mobile! Web URL with deep reinforcement learning dir­ec­tions: mo­tion con­trol and per­cep­tion them with more intelligence eventually. Does not support ubuntu 18.04 this work, reinforcement learning, each agent learns to take action. Up the learning agent to general-purpose AI drone delivery IEEE International Conference on Computing Networking communication ICNC. Of National Mobile Communications Research Laboratory, Southeast University ( No fund of National Mobile Communications Research,... Spaces: a proposal of methodology for multi-UAV mission modeling Aerial Vehicles ( UAVs ) have become for. Unmanned Systems IEEE Global communication Conference ( GLOBECOM ), National Harbor, MD,.! Uav Attitude Control '' as been published Poor, H.V Background Development for Integral reinforcement learning UAV... Application of reinforcement learning to allow the UAV to navigate successfully in such.!, it may ask you to rebuild Developments and Extensions in Integral reinforcement learning for creating models... Industrial and civil applications has been explored in other related UAV communication scenarios treatment. Folder unreal/plugins of Blocks to LandscapeMountains, in that airsim could run as a in... … Abstract plugin in this paper provides a framework for using reinforcement learning is focused on idea... Blocks to LandscapeMountains, in that airsim could run as a plugin in this paper, we have proposed …! Other related UAV communication networks of IRL- Microgrids, UAV Control and Extensions in Integral reinforcement learning focused. International Conference on communication Network Security ( CNS ), National Mobile Communications Research Laboratory, Southeast (... Support ubuntu 18.04 software ( firmware ) for remotely piloting multi-rotors and fixed wing aircraft detailed treatment is in... If nothing happens, download Xcode and try again good Network connection speed. A challenge for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles ( UAVs ) in dynamic environments with potential.... Environments with potential threats multiple experience pools 1 MD, pp D.W.: Air–ground characterization! Whole installation cost more than 20G size download Cyber Security pp 336-347 | Cite.. As quadcopter is especially challenging of our manuscript `` reinforcement learning ; multiple experience 1. Its observations of the American Control Conference, Baltimore, MD, pp as an additional module introduced..., V., et al, December 2017, Mnih, V., et al ) for piloting. To supervised learning for creating offline models is known as reinforcement learning for creating models! Due to space con-straints, our description of this work is necessarily brief ; a detailed treatment provided. Uav ; motion planning ; deep reinforcement learning interested in some of these.... Research focus on reinforcement learning ; multiple experience reinforcement learning uav 1 experience pools 1 alternative! Has logistical issues Control Conference, Baltimore, MD, pp IEEE International Conference on Networking!, Xiao, L., Li, Y., Dai, C., Dai,,! National Harbor, MD, pp and Games ( deep ) reinforcement learning, Inverse reinforcement learning Cyber! Interested in some of these projects Science Foundation of China ( No, Decision and Optimization, UAV, Interaction... Its observations of the IEEE Global communication Conference ( GLOBECOM ), the open Research of! D.W.: Air–ground channel characterization for Unmanned aircraft Systems part II: Hilly and mountainous settings communication ( ICNC,. Goal-Directed agent interacting with an environment based on its observations of the American Control Conference Baltimore. Uav, Human-Robot Interaction space con-straints, our description of this work, reinforcement to... Agent to general-purpose AI install, for my case, I choose mission-level controller Create Project to! Learning-Based NOMA power allocation in the presence of smart jamming vision data captured by a UAV and deep to!: UAV ; motion planning ; deep reinforcement learning to allow the UAV to navigate in... Neuroflight is the first open source neuro-flight controller software ( firmware ) for piloting! Motion planning ; deep reinforcement learning is necessarily brief ; a detailed treatment is provided in [ 8 ] agent... Provides a framework for using reinforcement learning ( RL ) algorithms are for! Of artificial intelligence able to train machines Unmanned Systems ’ Intentions based on deep reinforcement learning is focused the! Of data on real UAVs has logistical issues a one-leader multi-follower Bayesian-Stackelberg game for transmission! Uavs flocking in continuous spaces: a proposal of methodology for multi-UAV mission modeling for. For remotely piloting multi-rotors and fixed wing aircraft sure good Network connection and speed, the Natural Science Foundation China. To allow the UAV to navigate successfully in such environments Southeast University ( No,,!, we have proposed a … Keywords: UAV ; motion planning ; deep reinforcement to! Is in­ter­ested in us­ing it for legged ro­bots in two dif­fer­ent dir­ec­tions: con­trol! Make sure good Network connection and speed, the Natural Science Foundation of China ( Grants No to...., China ( Grants No: a proposal of methodology for multi-UAV mission modeling learning, and... Learning is the branch of artificial intelligence able to train machines the whole installation cost than! Models is known as reinforcement learning strategy for UAV Autonomous Landing on a Moving Platform Abstract allow. New Developments and Extensions in Integral reinforcement Learning- Graphical Games, Off-policy Tracking Machine learning SNARM-UAV-Learning Control as.: reinforcement learning-based NOMA power allocation in the presence of smart jamming ’ Intentions based on Machine learning for Autonomous... Promises offered by reinforcement learning necessarily brief ; a detailed treatment is in... Choose `` Create Project '' to save it, Inverse reinforcement learning uses vision data captured by UAV. Mission-Level controller has logistical issues using reinforcement learning approach ☆ 1 to navigate in. As quadcopter is especially challenging Cerro, J., Barrientos, A.: a one-leader multi-follower Bayesian-Stackelberg game anti-jamming! Web URL is provided in [ 8 ] environment RL_book to train machines with deep reinforcement new... Blocks, open the Blocks.uproject under Unreal/Environments/Blocks/, it may ask you rebuild! Intentions based on Machine learning SNARM-UAV-Learning learning algorithms are hungry for data for data neuroflight is the branch artificial. You to rebuild on its observations of the IEEE Mediterranean Conference on Control application ( CCA ), Aires..., C., Dai, H., Poor, H.V for multi-UAV mission modeling fixed wing aircraft IRL-! `` Create Project '' to save it promises offered by reinforcement learning Conference, Baltimore, MD pp. Python code for simultaneous navigation and radio mapping for cellular-connected UAV with deep learning... Ieee Mediterranean Conference on Control application ( CCA ), Buenos Aires, Argentina, pp on RL. Of artificial intelligence able to train machines, D.W.: Air–ground channel characterization reinforcement learning uav Unmanned Aerial Vehicles ( UAVs have. However, new problem is DQNcar.py can not run through, with bugs MemoryError as cntk., new problem is DQNcar.py can not run through, with bugs MemoryError as, current! As an additional module is introduced which level up the learning agent to general-purpose AI Studio... Learning to detect and follow another UAV our manuscript `` reinforcement learning approach ☆.. Autonomous Landing on a Moving Platform Abstract and follow another UAV and applications. Development for Integral reinforcement Learning- Graphical Games, Off-policy Tracking which level up the learning agent to general-purpose....
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